Rictifier

Rictifier

A rectifier is a electronic device which converts alternating current to direct current . It is a static and unidirectional device. The process of converting AC into DC is known as rectification. A rectifier can take the shape of several different physical forms such as solid state diode, mercury or valves, silicon-controlled rectifiers and various other silicon semiconductor switches.

Rectifiers are used in various devices including

(a)DC power supplies.

(b)Radio signals or detectors.

(c)A source of power instead of generating current.

(d)As flame rectification to detect the presence of flame.

(e) High voltage direct current power transmission system and televisions.

They are two main types

1. Half wave rectifier   

Half wave rectifier .  

2. Full wave rectifier

Full wave rectifier.

How to make your own Ethernet cable

             

Sure, you can buy Ethernet cables from the store, but where's the fun in that? If you want to make custom cable lengths or crossover cables, or repair a broken connector, why not do it yourself? Here's how.                    

Before you get started, make sure you have the necessary tools, and decide whether you're going to use Cat 5e or Cat 6 network cables.

What you'll need:

• Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) patch cable
• Modular connector (8P8C plug, aka RJ45)
• Crimping tool
• Cable tester (optional, but recommended)

There are four pairs of wires in an Ethernet cable, and an Ethernet connector (8P8C) has eight pin slots. Each pin is identified by a number, starting from left to right, with the clip facing away from you.

The two standards for wiring Ethernet cables are T568A and T568B. T568B is the most common and is what we'll be using for our straight Ethernet cable. The tables below show the proper orientation of the colored wires to the pins.

T568A Standard

Pin 1	White/Green
Pin 2	Green
Pin 3	White/Orange
Pin 4	Blue
Pin 5	White/Blue
Pin 6	Orange
Pin 7	White/Brown
Pin 8	Brown

T568B Standard

Pin 1	White/Orange
Pin 2	Orange
Pin 3	White/Green
Pin 4	Blue
Pin 5	White/Blue
Pin 6	Green
Pin 7	White/Brown
Pin 8	Brown

Step 1: Strip the cable jacket about 1.5 inch down from the end.

Step 2: Spread the four pairs of twisted wire apart. For Cat 5e, you can use the pull string to strip the jacket farther down if you need to, then cut the pull string. Cat 6 cables have a spine that will also need to be cut.

Step 3: Untwist the wire pairs and neatly align them in the T568B orientation. Be sure not to untwist them any farther down the cable than where the jacket begins; we want to leave as much of the cable twisted as possible.

Step 4: Cut the wires as straight as possible, about 0.5 inch above the end of the jacket.

Step 5: Carefully insert the wires all the way into the modular connector, making sure that each wire passes through the appropriate guides inside the connector.

Ed Rhee

Step 6: Push the connector inside the crimping tool and squeeze the crimper all the way down.

Step 7: Repeat steps 1-6 for the other end of the cable.

Step 8: To make sure you've successfully terminated each end of the cable, use a cable tester to test each pin.

When you're all done, the connectors should look like this:

That's it. For crossover cables, simply make one end of the cable a T568A and the other end a T568B. Now you can make Ethernet cables of any length, fix broken connectors, or make yourself a crossover cable. Happy crimping!

Basics of Arduino Mega

Hardware Basics of Arduino Mega 2560 Board

What is Arduino Mega 2560 Board

Arduino Mega 2560 Board is an open-source microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560 chip. Arduino Mega 2560 features 54 digital I/O pins (15 pins can be used as PWM), 16 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, Power Jack, and a Reset Button. Learn about Arduino Boards Family.

Basic Hardware of Arduino/Genuino Mega 2560

Arduino/Genuino Mega 2560 Board contains

1. Micro-controller (ATmega2560) –  Micro-controller ATmega2560(a single chip micro-controller) created by Amtel is used in Arduino Mega. It has 256KB programmable flash memory(in which 8KB used by bootloader), 8KB SRAM, 4KB EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory).
2. USB Connector – USB connector is used for two purposes in Arduino. The first one is to load the Mega 2560 user program to Arduino using Arduino IDE and another one is to power Arduino Board. Learn uploading program to Arduino board.
3. Power Port – The Arduino can be powered using AC to DC adapter or battery. 2.1mm center-positive plug is used to power the Arduino Board. Recommended input power Voltage is 7-12V.
4. USB Interface Chip – Arduino has Atmel ATmega16U2 as a USB interface chip. It is a bridge between Computer’s USB Port and the main processor’s serial port.
5. Digital I/O Pins – Arduino MEGA board has 54 Digital I/O Pins. The 54 Digital I/O Pins are numbered from Pin 0 to Pin 53. In which 15 of them are PWM (Pulse-Width Modulation) Digital I/O Pins. PWM pins are used to simulate analog output. Digital I/O Pins are used to take Digital Input or provide Digital Output in Arduino MEGA Board.
6. Analog Input Pins – Arduino MEGA board has 16 Analog Input Pins. The 16 Analog Input Pins are numbered from Pin A0 to Pin A15. Analog Input Pins are used to take the signal from analog sensors and convert it into a digital value. The pins measure the voltage not current because it has a very high value of internal resistance. So the value of current is much smaller as compared to the voltage.
7. Power Pins
   • Vin – The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it’s using an external power source.
   • 5V – This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don’t advise it.
   • 3V3 – This pin outputs a regulated 3.3 volt supply generated by the onboard regulator. The maximum current draw from this pin is 50 mA.
   • GND – Ground pins.
   • IOREF – This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.
8. Voltage Regulator – The main work of the Voltage Regulator is to regulate the input and output voltage of the Arduino MEGA board. It also regulates the voltage for 5V and 3V3 pins. If the power voltage of the power port is more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board.
9. Master Reset Button – Master Reset Button is used to reset the Arduino MEGA board and restart the running program from starting. It is useful when the programmer wants to run the program from the starting point. When Master Reset Button is pressed, it sends the logical pulse to the reset pin of the micro-controller.
10. ICSP Header Pins – a Full form of ICSP is In-Circuit Serial Programming also called In-System Programming (ISP). It is used to program AVR microcontrollers. You can use the Arduino ISP to upload sketches directly on the AVR-based Arduino boards without the need of the bootloader ICSP Header Pins contains six pins MISO(Master In Slave Out), +Vcc, SCK(Serial Clock), MOSI(Master Out Slave In), Reset, GND.
11. RX/TX LED – The RX and TX LEDs on the board will start flashing when data is being transmitted via USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer.

                 So, that was all for today's tutorial. I hope you have enjoyed it and are gonna share your                            comments. Will meet you guys in next tutorial. Till then take care and have fun !!! :)

Basics of Arduino UNO

                      Basics of Arduino UNO

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, I am going to share all the basic details about Arduino UNO. Arduino UNO is the most commonly used Microcontroller board designed by arduino.cc in Italy. I really admired the idea as they have kept everything open source. You can design its libraries for different sensors etc.

You should have a look at the Arduino UNO Pinout Diagram if you are planning to start working on this microcontroller board. So, let's cover this one from basics:

Basics of Arduino UNO

Let's have a look at the basic details of Arduino UNO:

• Arduino UNO is a Microcontroller board designed by Arduino.cc in Italy.
• It used Atmega328 Microcontroller which acts as a brain of this board.
• Arduino Bootloader is installed on Atmega328 which makes it capable to work with Arduino Programming.
• Arduino is an open-source platform so it has a lot of support from third-party developers.
• Anyone can design its Libraries for different sensors and modules.

Arduino UNO Pinout

If you are working on some project and you want to use this Arduino UNO board then you should know about its Pinout.

• Arduino UNO has 20 input/output pins.
• Among these 20 pins, we have 14 digital pins.
• The remaining 6 pins are analogue pins.
• It also has 6 PWM pins which are used for Pulse Width Modulation.
• Arduino UNO supports follow 3 communication protocols:
  • Serial Protocol
  • I2C Protocol
  • SPI Protocol

So, these digital and analogue pins are capable of multiple functions and it totally depends on your projects' requirement. If you want to use SPI modules then you have to stick to SPI Pins and if you want to interface Serial module like GSMm or GPS then you need to use Serial Pins. We can also design software serial as well.

Arduino UNO Memory Features

Memories are of main concern while selecting a microcontroller for your project. If you have bigger data or code etc to save then you shouldn't select this one, I would recommend Arduino Mega. Although the SD card option is always there, isn't it? So, let's have a look at its memory features:

• It has a flash memory of 32Kb.
• Arduino UNO has SRAM of 2KB.
• EEPROM memory of UNO is 1Kb.
• Bootloader of 2Kb is installed so we are left with 30kb Flash memory.

Arduino UNO Applications

Arduino UNO has numerous applications in our everyday life. It's the most commonly used Microcontroller board. Few of its working fields are as follows:

• Embedded Systems
• Control Systems
• Robotics
• Instrumentation
• Condition Monitoring

So you must have got the picture of its uses. I must add it's just the tip of the iceberg and there's a lot we can do with this Microcontroller board. If you are getting any trouble while working on it then ask in comments and I will help you out.

Why Arduino? and How do I use Arduino?

                             Why Arduino?

Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino has been used in thousands of different projects and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and students use it to build low cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics principles, or to get started with programming and robotics. Designers and architects build interactive prototypes, musicians and artists use it for installations and to experiment with new musical instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino is a key tool to learn new things. Anyone - children, hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start tinkering just following the step by step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online with other members of the Arduino community.

There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems:

• Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50
• Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
• Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so students learning to program in that environment will be familiar with how the Arduino IDE works.
• Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open source tools, available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.
• Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards are published under a Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it works and save money.

                     How do I use Arduino?

See the getting started guide. If you are looking for inspiration you can find a great variety of Tutorials on Arduino Project Hub.

The text of the Arduino getting started guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License. Code samples in the guide are released into the public domain.

What is Arduino?

                              What is Arduino?

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing.

Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts alike.

Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As soon as it reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments. All Arduino boards are completely open-source, empowering users to build them independently and eventually adapt them to their particular needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing through the contributions of users worldwide.

So, that was all for today's tutorial. I hope you have enjoyed it and are  share your comments. Will meet you guys in next tutorial. Till then take care and have fun !!! :)

Basics of Arduino Nano

                    Basics of Arduino Nano

Hello friends, I hope you all are having fun in your lives. Today, I am going to share a new tutorial in which I am gonna discuss the basic details of the Arduino Nano Microcontroller board. It's quite similar to Arduino UNO when it comes to features and pinouts but it has replaced UNO because of its small size. As you all know size matters a lot in Embedded as well. Embedded devices are preferred to be smaller in size. 

Basic Features of Arduino Nano

Here are few of its basic features which you must know if you are thinking to work on this great microcontroller board:

• It has 22 input/output pins in total.
• 14 of these pins are digital pins.
• Arduino Nano has 8 analogue pins.
• It has 6 PWM pins among the digital pins.
• It has a crystal oscillator of 16MHz.
• It's operating voltage varies from 5V to 12V.
• It also supports different ways of communication, which are:
  • Serial Protocol.
  • I2C Protocol.
  • SPI Protocol.
• It also has a mini USB Pin which is used to upload code.
• It also has a Reset button on it.

Memory in Arduino Nano

It has below memories embedded in it which are used for different purposes and are as follows:

• Flash memory of Arduino Nano is 32Kb.
• It has preinstalled bootloader on it, which takes a flash memory of 2kb.
• SRAM memory of this Microcontroller board is 8kb.
• It has an EEPROM memory of 1kb.

Applications of Arduino Nano

Here are few of its application but it has an extensive ran

Cells and Batteries

                                 Cells and Batteries         

                            

Batteries are the source of DC electric energy, which is made available by an electrochemical system in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. Battery is the combination of cells which can be divided into two main categories i.e. primary and secondary cells according to the chemical action takes place in both the cells.

           Chemical Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte then it decomposes into its constituents and this effect is called chemical effect of electric. Some of important terms related to chemical effect of electric current are discussed below

    Electrolyte

The conduction of current through certain salt solutions is quite different from the conduction of current through the conductors. Such liquid or solutions or solutions provide oppositely charged atoms or group of atoms and are known as electrolyte e.g. , solutions of NaCl, CuSo, AgNO₃, etc.

A liquid which conducts electric due to the drifting of ions is called an electrolyte. The drifting of ions dissociation takes place in the form of anode and cathode.

    Electrode

For the flow of current in electrolyte, two metal rods are used,  they are called as electrodes. They are of two types.

(1) Anode An Anode is an electrode through which positive charge flows.   

(2) Cathode A  cathode is an electrode through which electrons enter.

    Electrolysis

When a DC current is passed through an electrolyte, then it is separated into its ions. Among them, one is positive(+)ion and other is negative(-)ion.

e.g. ,                        H₂SO₄ →  2H⁺ + SO₄^{- -}

                                CuSo₄   →  Cu⁺⁺ + SO₄^{- -}

In  first chemical reaction, sulphuric acid is separated in hydrogen(+)and sulphate (-) ions and in second chemical reaction, copper sulphate is separated in copper(+) and sulphate(-)ions.

When anode of electrode is connected to positive terminal of the battery and cathodeof electrode is connected to the negative terminal of the electrolyte due to which, positive ions mons move towards cathode and negative ions move towards anode.

In sulphuric acid, H⁺ ions give its charge to cathode and  forms hydrogen (H₂)gas and SO₄^2- ions on reaching anode, react with water and forms sulphuric acid H₂SO­­­­­­­₄ and oxygen gas(O₂)­­­.  

                              2H₂O+2SO₄^2- → 2H₂SO₄+O₂